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Chapter 4 (continued)
Interactional Model
Individuals can arrive at the same place with regard to sexual orientation yet come from many diverse developmental backgrounds.1(p928) This idea has been expressed by researchers and theorists approaching the topic of homosexuality from many different perspectives. Rochelle Klinger of the Medical College of Virginia said, “I don’t think we’ll ever find a single cause of homosexuality.”2 Elizabeth Moberly, author of Homosexuality: A New Christian Ethic wrote, “many things may cause the ATTACHMENT disruption underlying homosexuality. There is not a single cause leading to a single effect.”3 (p3)
Joe Dallas, author of Desires in Conflict, objects to most theories regarding development of homosexuality because they assume that each person has homosexual attractions for the same reason.4(p92) Just as there is great lifestyle diversity among homosexual persons, there is also a diversity of factors that contribute to same-sex attraction.5(Tape 1) Human behavior, it seems, results from complex interactions between the basic biologic drives, interpersonal relations, and psychological factors.6(p400)
Dr. Allen Bergin suggests that “causality is 1) multiple, 2) reciprocal, 3) cyclical, and 4) agentive, thus resulting in varied pathways and also varied outcomes.”7 The multiplicity of factors mentioned by Bergin has been discussed in chapters 2 and 3. Research presented in those chapters implicates three main sets of factors: relationship problems, biologic factors, and sexual abuse. A fourth factor must be added: the boy’s own interpretations and reactions. Bergin’s model seems to indicate that each of these factors would influence—and be influenced by—each other (reciprocal) and that these mutual interactions would be repeated many times along the developmental pathway (cyclical). Furthermore, his model suggests that the individual’s own actions influence the outcome (agentive).
Byne and Parsons present a similar “interactional model.” According to their model, biologic factors (genes and hormones) influence a person’s temperament—or bias them toward certain personality traits—but do not determine sexual orientation.8(p433), 9(p236-237) They refer to the work of Robert Cloninger who suggests that there may be three underlying dimensions of the personality that are genetically determined. These are “novelty seeking, harm avoidance, and reward dependence.” Novelty seeking is described as a tendency to respond with “intense exhilaration or excitement” to new situations, the possibility of rewards, or opportunities to avoid discomfort. Harm avoidance is the tendency to respond strongly to, and avoid, things that cause discomfort. Reward dependence is described as a proneness to respond strongly to pleasant things, especially “social approval, sentiment, and succor.”10(p574-575)
The underlying disposition for these three traits may be genetically determined. But the effect of these traits on the personality and behavior of an individual would be strongly influenced by his relationships and experiences with other people and even on other biologic factors like general health, body size, and strength. Byne and Parsons propose that biological factors would influence temperament. Then through normal psychological processes influenced by the child’s family and social situation, temperament would affect the child’s relationships and also his perception of these relationships. His perception would then contribute to the development of the child’s sexual orientation.8(p433)
Byne and Parsons suggest a scenario of a boy who is high in harm avoidance and reward dependence but low in novelty seeking. Such a boy might prefer the warm approval of his mother over the less rewarding approval of men and boys. If his father, or some other male, does not take a special interest in him, he might miss out on male role modeling. He would be less likely to participate in sports and rough play (high harm avoidance, low novelty seeking) and so would miss a large part of peer identification. These experiences could lead to the boy feeling unmasculine, isolating himself, becoming a scapegoat for other boys, and feeling rejected by his peers and older males—traits that are common in boys who later develop a homosexual orientation.9(p237)
The range of possible personality development variations suggested by this scenario is vast. What if the boy described above moves at a young age to a new neighborhood, is befriended by a nurturing scout master, and is accepted by a PEER GROUP of accepting boys. He may experience male role modeling, he may learn to at least endure sports for the sake of experiencing friendships, and he may identify strongly with his peers. These factors could foster development of a heterosexual orientation.
At the same time it is possible to imagine a boy with high novelty seeking, and low harm avoidance and reward dependence who becomes homosexually oriented. If such a child became involved at an early age with other boys who experimented extensively with homosexual play he may find this behavior exhilarating (high novelty seeking). Despite family and social discouragement of homosexuality (low harm avoidance and reward dependence) he may continue to explore the behavior simply because it is exciting and feels good. If other boys find out about his continued homosexual behavior, he may be taunted and rejected even if he otherwise participates in sports and other typical boy activities. The open rejection of his peers could lead to his becoming isolated and feeling unmasculine, which he might compensate for by increasing his homosexual activities.
June Reinisch, director of the Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction at Indiana University, stated: “All of us believe that genetic and hormonal influences are involved in homosexuality . . . but there’s also an interaction with the environment.”11 It seems to be a common human trait to look for simple answers, especially in situations that are complex and distressing. However, resorting to simple answers regarding the causes of homosexuality creates frustration, hopelessness, anger, and even greater distress. Byne and Parsons state: “It is imperative that clinicians and behavioral scientists begin to appreciate the complexities of sexual orientation and resist the urge to search for simplistic explanations, either psychosocial or biologic.”9(p236)
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ATTACHMENT: an affection that binds two people together; an emotional tie. Between fathers and sons this probably includes the son’s dependence on his father for emotional satisfaction, and a receptiveness to the father’s care.2(p63)
PEER GROUP: in this context it refers to persons of the same age group and gender with which a given person interacts.